1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to treatment of cardiac conditions in living beings, and more particularly to global cardiac resizing and reshaping using the venous system of the heart.
2. Description of Related Art
Cardiovascular disease (“CVD”) is the leading cause of death in the United States; see, e.g., C. Lenfant, Fixing the Failing Heart, Circulation, Vol. 95, 1997, pages 771-772; American Heart Association, Heart and Stroke Statistical Update, 2001; C. Lenfant, Cardiovascular Research: An NIH Perspective, Cardiovasc. Surg., Vol. 5, 1997; pages 4-5; J. N. Cohn et al., Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Special Emphasis Panel on Heart Failure Research, Circulation, Vol. 95, 1997, pages 766-770.
Heart failure (“HF”) is generally defined as a change in the pumping function of the heart accompanied by typical signs or symptoms. These symptoms typically include shortness of breath or fatigue. Heart failure is a syndrome of ventricular dysfunction in which both ventricles are usually involved to some extent. Left ventricular failure typically causes shortness of breath and fatigue, and right ventricular failure typically causes peripheral and abdominal fluid accumulation. Heart failure is a progressive disorder whereby the hemodynamic and symptomatic states of the patient worsen over time despite the absence of clinically apparent adverse events. The symptomatic deterioration is often accompanied by progressive left ventricular (“LV”) chamber remodeling, a process characterized globally by changes in LV chamber size and shape and, at the cellular level, by ongoing loss of cardiomyocytes, myocyte hypertrophy and interstitial fibrosis. Myocyte loss, hypertrophy and accumulation of collagen in the interstitial compartment are important determinants of progressive LV dysfunction, while increased LV size and chamber sphericity and annular dilation secondary to LV systolic dysfunction and dilation are major determinants of functional mitral regurgitation (“MR”). MR is incompetency of the mitral valve causing flow from the left ventricle (LV) into the left atrium during systole, and depending on its severity can have a major impact on reducing LV stroke output which is already impaired in heart failure. Progressive LV dilation can also lead to LV wall stress and myocardial stretch. Increased LV wall stress leads to increased myocardial oxygen consumption, and myocardial stretch can activate stretch response proteins that may play an important role in the development of maladaptive cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. LV dilation and increased LV sphericity are also sensitive indicators of poor long-term outcome.
For these reasons, preventing or reversing remodeling has emerged as desirable in the treatment of cardiomyopathy. Cardiomyopathy is a general term for disease of heart muscle regardless of the underlying etiology, which may be, for example, ischemic, hypertensive, dilated, hypertrophic, infiltrative, restrictive, viral, postpartum, valvular, or idiopathic. Cardomyopathy typically results in heart failure. Examples of various types of cardiomyopathy are as follows. Cor pulmonale is right ventricular enlargement secondary to a lung disorder that produces pulmonary artery hypertension. Right ventricular failure may follow. Dilated congestive cardiomyopathy is myocardial dysfunction producing heart failure in which ventricular dilation and systolic dysfunction predominate. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a congenital or acquired disorder characterized by marked ventricular hypertrophy with diastolic dysfunction but without increased afterload. Examples include valvular aortic stenosis, coarctation of the aorta, and systemic hypertension. Restrictive cardiomyopathy is characterized by noncompliant ventricular walls that resist diastolic filling. Although the left ventricle is most commonly affected, both ventricles may be affected.
At the present time, the most effective treatment for patients in end-stage heart failure is heart transplantation. However, given the chronic shortage of donor hearts, alternate strategies are needed to improve the lives of those with heart failure. Moreover, transplantation is not the most suitable treatment option for patients with milder forms of the disease.
Other treatment approaches include the delivery of drugs to the site of action through the bloodstream, and the injection of cells into ischemic myocardium to improve cardiac function. An example of an approach for treating cardiovascular problems with an intramyocardial scaffolding is disclosed in United States Patent Application Publication No. 2005/0271631, published Dec. 8, 2005 in the name of Lee et al. and entitled “Material compositions and related systems and methods for treating cardiac conditions.”
Tissue engineering approaches for cardiac therapy that are generally intended to repair lost or damaged tissue through the use of cellular transplantation and biomaterial scaffolds have also been disclosed. One example of this approach involves suturing fetal cardiomyocyte-seeded alginate gels to the epicardial surface in order to preserve LV function. Another treatment approach involves the use of mechanical external constraints to limit, stop, or even reverse negative left ventricular remodeling. One previously disclosed study included suturing a polymeric mesh to the epicardial surface for the intended purpose of providing an external support to prevent LV dilation and deterioration of LV function post-MI. See Kelley S T, Malekan R, Gorman J H 3rd et al., Restraining infarct expansion preserves left ventricle geometry and function after acute anteroapical infarction, Circulation 1999; 99:135-42. Another previously disclosed device that has been investigated provides a plurality of sutures that are implanted in an open-chest procedure across the ventricle under tension to provide a change in the ventricle shape and a decrease in chamber diameter. This trans-cavitary suture network is intended to decrease the radius of the ventricle to thus reduce ventricular wall stress. Another previously disclosed device under clinical investigation is generally a mesh structure that is implanted as a jacket around the heart and adjusted to provide a snug fit during open-chest surgery. It is intended that the jacket restrains the heart from further enlargement. See, for example, Hani N. Sabbah, Reversal of Chronic Molecular and Cellular Abnormalities Due to Heart Failure by Passive Mechanical Ventricular Containment, Circ. Res., Vol. 93, 2003, pages 1095-1101; Sharad Rastogi et al., Reversal of Maladaptive Gene Program in Left Ventricular Myocardium of Dogs with Heart Failure Following Long-Term Therapy with the Acorn Cardiac Support Devide, Heart Failure Reviews, Vol. 10, 2005, pages 157-163. Still another approach being investigated provides a nitinol mesh as a similar external restraining device to that described above; however, the super-elastic system is intended to assist in systolic contraction, and is generally intended for use via thorascopically guided minimally invasive delivery. Still another system being investigated includes a rigid ring that is implanted during open-chest surgery as another external constraining device to the ventricle. This ring is intended to decrease ventricular wall stress and prevent further enlargement of the heart by reducing the radius and modifying the shape of the ventricle. Examples of devices and methods similar to one or more of those discussed above have been disclosed by various companies, including the following: “Acorn;” “Myocor;” “Paracor;” “Cardioclasp;” and “Hearten.” The Cardioclasp device is disclosed in an article by Abul Kashem et al., CardioClasp: A New Passive Device to Re-Shape Cardiac Enlargement, ASAIO Journal, 2002.
These techniques have had some success. Long term therapy with the Acorn Cardiac Support Device, for example, was reported to have halted progressive left ventricular dilation and to have improved ejection fraction. This improvement of global LV function was reported as being due to, at least in part, downregulation of stretch response proteins, attenuation of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, and improvement of sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium cycling. Despite advances in the treatment of heart failure, further improvement in the speed of treatment and reduction of the complexity and intrusiveness of treatment techniques and devices is desirable.
Myocardial infarction (“MI”) is a medical emergency in which some of the heart's blood supply is suddenly and severely reduced or cut off, causing the myocardium to die because it is deprived of its oxygen supply. A myocardial infarction may progressively advance into heart failure. Scar tissue formation and aneurysmal thinning of the infarct region often occur in patients who survive myocardial infarctions. It is believed that the death of cardiomyocytes results in negative left ventricular (LV) remodeling which leads to increased wall stress in the remaining viable myocardium. This process results in a sequence of molecular, cellular, and physiological responses which lead to LV dilation. Negative LV remodeling is generally considered an independent contributor to the progression of heart failure.
Despite advances in the treatment of cardiomyopathy and aneurysmal thinning, further improvement in treatment techniques and devices are desirable, especially in conjunction with treatment of heart failure.